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They represent an extended period in which the university city became probably the most productive centre of illumination in Italy incorporating or influencing most artistic trends current in central and northern Italy between Naples and Venice. They were chosen to represent the beginnings, evolution and height of Bolognese illuminated manuscript production from examples in a private collection readily available for such analysis they date to the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries and provide at least a partial indication of the pigments generally used in this period, though those used in many legal and other academic manuscripts are under-represented, as are the finest pigments of the most luxurious Bolognese productions from the Palaeologan Renaissance ‘Second Style’.

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We report here the results of a programme of non-destructive analysis of five illuminations and cuttings of the Bologna school in northern Italy using RM and portable X-ray fluorescence (pXRF). Notable was the absence of lead-containing pigments, but whether this was due to stylistic preferences or non-availability of lead pigments in Iceland is not known. The pigments identified were vermilion, orpiment, realgar, red ochre, azurite, bone white, verdigris and possibly green earth. A second early study was of the Skard manuscript, a finely illuminated fourteenth century Icelandic manuscript ( ca 1360).

One of the earliest manuscript studies by RM was of a thirteenth century Paris bible, in which the following pigments were identified: azurite, orpiment, lazurite, realgar, lead white, red lead, malachite and vermilion. Notable sites were the universities of Paris and Bologna, and later university cities.

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With the growth of cities and the evolution of the ‘Gothic’ styles from the ‘Romanesque’ between 11, professional resident bookmakers and mendicant clergy took over from monks. Differential access to lazurite was surely an issue at the time as this pigment was not found on any of the other eighth, ninth and tenth century manuscripts studied in the British Library until it was identified as a ca AD 920 pigmentary addition made as part of the restoration of a much earlier manuscript. By contrast and dating a century later ( ca AD 800), the painters of the Book of Kells in Ireland made the same use of indigo but also employed lazurite. The first RM study of an Anglo-Saxon manuscript was made on the Lindisfarne Gospels, which revealed (contrary to perceived wisdom of the day) no trace of lazurite on the manuscript the blue colour was achieved solely by the use of indigo extracted from the woad plant indigenous in northeast England and Scotland. In the earlier ‘Middle Ages’, most books were produced in monasteries and other major church establishments. One of the issues considered in this paper is the variability in artistic materials achieved through improvisation or experiment at the local, intra-school level and within a well-defined period. But underlying the basic commonality of the palette at that time was the way that individual artists could improvise or experiment, according to the status or scale of the manuscript, by mixing colours that were already part of that palette. Besides technical treatises, expertise was probably passed on orally and through practical experience. By the fourteenth century, if not earlier, communications by land or sea had enabled painters working in many parts of Europe to access a wide variety of pigments. tenth to thirteenth century) Armenian and Byzantine manuscripts reviewed by Orna. One such pigment was lazurite (extracted from lapis lazuli found in Afghanistan) which was identified as a blue pigment in the earliest (i.e. It was later supplemented by other pigments as painting media and techniques diversified in the Byzantine and neighbouring worlds. The Roman palette used in wall paintings was dominated by locally available minerals, earths and plant extracts with a limited range of synthetic materials such as lead white, verdigris, red lead and Egyptian blue. As a result, the evolution of developments in artistic materials from the Roman period onwards is becoming better understood. This situation owes much to the role of Raman microscopy (RM) which has been notably successful in achieving high-resolution identifications of pigments.

Technical art history studies of illuminated manuscripts and cuttings ranging in date from the Anglo-Saxon period (eighth century) to late medieval times are numerous.

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